Abstract
Nonlinear ultrasonic (NLU) techniques have emerged as a potential solution to improve the resolution of nondestructive measurements to detect microstructural changes of cyclically loaded materials. However, current NLU methods need power-demanding instrumentation that is useful only in the laboratory settings. On the other hand, phased array systems provide the capability of sensing such changes when the later portion of the elastic waveforms, called diffuse field, is analyzed. Moreover, phased array systems are an excellent solution for field test measurement and imaging of material damage. This study explores the use of NLU metrics based on ratios of harmonic amplitudes and frequencies to map the buildup of damage precursors, such as crystal dislocations, under cyclic loading within the microstructure of fatigued 2024-T3 aluminum specimens. The results show that these metrics are highly sensitive to microstructural fatigue damage making them significantly important to measure mechanical properties, such as fracture toughness, that are extremely useful in predicting the remaining useful life of a studied material. A nonlinear metric of elastic energy that encapsulates the nonlinear effects of subharmonic and higher-harmonic generations and frequency ratio is proposed. These effects of spectral energy shifts are combined making this metric highly sensitive to nano- and micro-scale damage within the fatigued medium.
Issue Section:
Research Papers
References
1.
Fine
, M.
, and Chung
, Y.-W.
, 1996
, ASM Metals Handbook
, S. R.
Lampman
, ed., Vol. 19
, Materials Park, ASM International
, Cleveland, OH
, pp. 63
–72
.2.
Hirao
, M.
, Ogi
, H.
, Suzuki
, N.
, and Ohtani
, T.
, 2000
, “Ultrasonic Attenuation Peak During Fatigue of Polycrystalline Copper
,” Acta Mater.
, 48
(2
), pp. 517
–524
. 10.1016/S1359-6454(99)00346-83.
Generazio
, E.
, Roth
, D.
, and Baaklini
, G.
, 1988
, “Imaging Subtle Microstructural Variations in Ceramics With Precision Ultrasonic Velocity and Attenuation Measurements
,” Rev. Prog. Quant. Nondestr. Eval.
, 7
(B
), pp. 1237
–1246
. 10.1007/978-1-4613-0979-6_434.
Ogi
, H.
, Hirao
, M.
, and Minoura
, K.
, 1997
, “Noncontact Measurement of Ultrasonic Attenuation During Rotating Fatigue Test of Steel
,” J. Appl. Phys.
, 81
(8
), pp. 3677
–3684
. 10.1063/1.3654895.
Ogi
, H.
, Hamaguchi
, T.
, and Hirao
, M.
, 2000
, “Ultrasonic Attenuation Peak in Steel and Aluminum Alloy During Rotating Bending Fatigue
,” Metall. Mater. Trans. A
, 31
(4
), pp. 1121
–1128
. 10.1007/s11661-000-0107-16.
Bunget
, G.
, Goff
, A.
, Brown
, N.
, Demo
, J.
, Friedersdorf
, F.
, Ghoshal
, A.
, Pepi
, M.
, Siddhant
, D.
, and Chattopadhyay
, A.
, 2015
, “Identification of Material Damage Precursors Using Nonlinear Ultrasonics
,” 51st AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference
, Orlando, FL
, July 27–28
, p. 5837
.7.
Frouin
, J.
, Sathish
, S.
, Matikas
, T.
, and Na
, J.
, 1999
, “Ultrasonic Linear and Nonlinear Behavior of Fatigued Ti–6Al–4V
,” J. Mater. Res.
, 14
(4
), pp. 1295
–1298
. 10.1557/JMR.1999.01768.
Nagy
, P.
, 1998
, “Fatigue Damage Assessment by Nonlinear Material Characterization
,” Ultrasonics
, 36
(1–5
), pp. 375
–381
. 10.1016/S0041-624X(97)00040-19.
Hikata
, A.
, Chick
, B.
, and Elbaum
, C.
, 1965
, “Dislocation Contribution to the Second Harmonic Generation of Ultrasonic Wave
,” J. Appl. Phys.
, 36
(1
), pp. 229
–236
. 10.1063/1.171388110.
Yost
, W.
, Cantrell
, J.
, and Breazeale
, M.
, 1981
, “Ultrasonic Nonlinearity Parameters and Third-Order Elastic Constants of Copper Between 300 and 3°K
,” J. Appl. Phys.
, 52
(1
), p. 126
. 10.1063/1.32844311.
Peters
, R.
, and Arnold
, R.
, 1971
, “Ultrasonic Third-Harmonic Generation in Strontium Titanate Single Crystals
,” J. Appl. Phys.
, 42
(3
), pp. 980
–983
. 10.1063/1.166019612.
Cantrell
, J.
, and Yost
, W.
, 1994
, “Acoustic Harmonic Generation From Fatigue-Induced Dislocation Dipoles
,” Philos. Mag. A
, 69
(2
), pp. 315
–326
. 10.1080/0141861940824434613.
Bunget
, G.
, Henley
, S.
, Glass
, C.
, Rogers
, J.
, Webster
, M.
, Farinholt
, K.
, Friedersdorf
, F.
, Pepi
, M.
, Ghoshal
, A.
, Datta
, S.
, and Chattopadhyay
, A.
, 2020
, “Decomposition Method to Detect Fatigue Damage Precursors in Thin Components Through Nonlinear Ultrasonic With Collinear Mixing Contributions
,” ASME J. NDE Diag. Progn. Engr. Sys.
, 3
(2
), p. 021003
. 10.1115/1.404596014.
Granato
, A.
, and Lucke
, K.
, 1956
, “Theory of Mechanical Damping Due to Dislocations
,” J. Appl. Phys.
, 27
(6
), pp. 583
–593
. 10.1063/1.172243615.
Abeele
, K. V. D.
, Sutin
, A.
, Carmeliet
, J.
, and Johnson
, P.
, 2001
, “Micro-Damage Diagnostics Using Nonlinear Elastic Wave Spectroscopy (NEWS)
,” NDT&E Int.
, 34
(4
), pp. 239
–248
. 10.1016/S0963-8695(00)00064-516.
Damme
, B. V.
, and Abeele
, K. V. D.
, 2014
, “The Application of Nonlinear Reverberation Spectroscopy for the Detection of Localized Fatigue Damage
,” J. Nondestruct. Eval.
, 33
, pp. 236
–268
. 10.1007/s10921-014-0230-317.
Abeele
, K.-A.
, Johnson
, P.
, and Guyer
, R.
, 1997
, “On the Quasi-Analytic Treatment of Hysteretic Nonlinear Response in Elastic Wave Propagation
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
, 101
(4
), pp. 1885
–1898
. 10.1121/1.41819818.
Lesnicki
, K.
, Kim
, J.
, Kurtis
, K.
, and Jacobs
, L.
, 2013
, “Accelerated Determination of ASR Susceptibility During Concrete Prism Testing Through Nonlinear Resonance Acoustic Spectroscopy
,” US Department of Transportation
, McLean, VA
.19.
Ohtani
, T.
, and Ishii
, Y.
, 2012
, “Nonlinear Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy (NRUS) Applied to Fatigue Damage Evaluation in a Pure Copper
,” Nonlinear Acoustics State-of-the-Art and Perspective, AIP Conference Proceedings
, Tokyo, Japan
, May 21–24
, Vol.1474, pp. 203–206.20.
Aki
, K.
, and Chouet
, B.
, 1975
, “Origin of Coda Waves: Source, Attenuation, and Scattering Effects
,” J. Geophys. Res.
, 80
(23
), pp. 3322
–3342
. 10.1029/JB080i023p0332221.
Snieder
, R.
, Gret
, A.
, Douma
, H.
, and Scales
, J.
, 2002
, “Coda Wave Interferometry for Estimating Nonlinear Behavior in Seismic Velocity
,” Science
, 295
(5563
), pp. 2253
–2255
. 10.1126/science.107001522.
Poupinet
, G.
, Ellsworth
, W.
, and Frechet
, J.
, 1984
, “Monitoring Velocity Variations in the Crust Using Earthquake Doublets: An Application to the Calaveras Fault, California
,” J. Geophys. Res.
, 89
(B7
), pp. 5719
–5731
. 10.1029/JB089iB07p0571923.
Wang
, W.
, and Shearer
, P.
, 2018
, “An Improved Method to Determine Coda-Q, Earthquake Magnitude, and Site Amplification: Theory and Application to Southern California
,” J. Geophys. Res.
, 124
(1
), pp. 578
–598
. 10.1029/2018JB01596124.
Frojd
, P.
, and Ulriksen
, P.
, 2016
, “Amplitude and Phase Measurements of Continuous Diffuse fields for Structural Health Monitoring of Concrete Structures
,” NDT&E Int.
, 77
, pp. 35
–41
. 10.1016/j.ndteint.2015.10.00325.
Schurr
, D.
, Kim
, J.
, Sabra
, K.
, and Jacobs
, L.
, 2011
, “Damage Detection in Concrete Using Coda Wave Interferometry
,” NDT&E Int.
, 44
(8
), pp. 728
–735
. 10.1016/j.ndteint.2011.07.00926.
Weaver
, R.
, 1987
, Solid Mechanics Research for Quantitative Non-Destructive Evaluation
, J. D.
Achenbach
and Y.
Rajapakse
, eds., Springer
, Dordrecht
, pp. 425
–434
.27.
Michaels
, J.
, and Michaels
, T.
, 2005
, “Detection of Structural Damage From the Local Temporal Coherence of Diffuse Ultrasonic Signals
,” IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Eng.
, 52
(10
), pp. 1769
–1782
. 10.1109/tuffc.2005.156163128.
Shokouhi
, P.
, 2013
, “Stress- and Damage-Induced Changes in Coda Wave Velocities in Concrete
,” QNDE, AIP Conference Proceedings
, Baltimore, MD
, July 21–26
.29.
Payan
, C.
, Garnier
, V.
, and Moysan
, J.
, 2010
, “Potential of Nonlinear Ultrasonic Indicators for Nondestructive Testing of Concrete
,” Adv. Civ. Eng.
, 2010
, p. 1155
. 10.1155/2010/23847230.
Larose
, E.
, and Hall
, S.
, 2009
, “Monitoring Stress Related Velocity Variation in Concrete With a 2.10(−5) Relative Resolution Using Diffuse Ultrasound
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
, 125
(4
), pp. 1853
–1856
. 10.1121/1.307977131.
Livings
, R.
, Dayal
, V.
, and Barnard
, D.
, 2015
, “Feasibility of Detecting Fatigue Damage in Composites With Coda Waves
,” 41st QNDE AIP Conference Proceedings
, Minneapolis, MN
, July 25–31
, Vol. 1650
, pp. 1130
–1139
.32.
Ohara
, Y.
, Mihara
, T.
, and Yamanaka
, K.
, 2006
, “Effect of Adhesion Force Between Crack Planes on Subharmonic and DC Reponses in Nonlinear Ultrasound
,” Ultrasonics
, 44
(2
), pp. 194
–199
. 10.1016/j.ultras.2005.10.00633.
Ohara
, Y.
, Horinouchi
, S.
, Hashimoto
, M.
, Shintaku
, Y.
, and Yamanaka
, K.
, 2011
, “Nonlinear Ultrasonic Imaging Method for Closed Cracks Using Subtraction of Responses at Different External Loads
,” Ultrasonics
, 51
(6
), pp. 661
–666
. 10.1016/j.ultras.2010.12.01034.
Ohara
, Y.
, Potter
, J.
, Nakajima
, H.
, Tsuji
, T.
, and Mihara
, T.
, 2019
, “Multi-Mode Nonlinear Ultrasonic Phased Array for Imaging Closed Cracks
,” Jpn. J. Appl. Phys.
, 58
(SG
), pp. 1
–7
. 10.7567/1347-4065/ab0adc35.
Potter
, J.
, and Croxford
, A.
, 2018
, “Characterization of Nonlinear Ultrasonic Diffuse Energy Imaging
,” IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Eng.
, 65
(5
), pp. 870
–880
. 10.1109/TUFFC.2018.281624336.
Croxford
, A.
, Cheng
, J.
, and Potter
, J.
, 2016
, “Nonlinear Phased Array Imaging
,” Proceedings of SPIE Conference
, Las Vegas, NV
, Mar. 20–24
, Vol. 9805
.37.
Potter
, J.
, Croxford
, A.
, and Wilcox
, P.
, 2014
, “Nonlinear Ultrasonic Phased Array Imaging
,” Phys. Rev. Lett.
, 113
(14
), pp. 144301
. 10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.14430138.
Haupert
, S.
, Renaud
, G.
, and Schumm
, A.
, 2017
, “Ultrasonic Imaging of Nonlinear Scatterers Buried in a Medium
,” NDT&E Int.
, 87
, pp. 1
–6
. 10.1016/j.ndteint.2016.12.01039.
Dao
, G.
, Braconnier
, D.
, and Gruber
, M.
, 2015
, “Full-Matrix Capture With a Customizable Phased Array Instrument
,” 41st QNDE AIP Conference Proceedings 1650
, Boise, ID
, July 20–25
, p. 1001
.40.
Hunter
, A.
, Drinkwater
, B.
, and Wilcox
, P.
, 2008
, “The Wavenumber Algorithm for Full-Matrix Imaging Using an Ultrasonic Array
,” IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Eng.
, 55
(11
), pp. 2450
–2462
. 10.1109/TUFFC.95241.
Pruell
, C.
, Kim
, J.-Y.
, Qu
, J.
, and Jacobs
, L.
, 2009
, “Evaluation of Fatigue Damage Using Nonlinear Guided Waves
,” Smart Mater. Struct.
, 18
(3
), pp. 1
–7
. 10.1088/0964-1726/18/3/03500342.
Kim
, C.
, Park
, I.
, and Jhang
, K.
, 2009
, “Nonlinear Ultrasonic Characterization of Thermal Degradation in Ferritic 2.25Cr–1Mo Steel
,” NDT&E Int.
, 42
(3
), pp. 204
–209
. 10.1016/j.ndteint.2008.09.00243.
Hikata
, A.
, Truell
, R.
, Granato
, A.
, Chick
, B.
, and Lucke
, K.
, 1956
, “Sensitivity of Ultrasonic Attenuation and Velocity Changes to Plastic Deformation and Recovery in Aluminum
,” J. Appl. Phys.
, 27
(4
), pp. 396
–404
. 10.1063/1.172238344.
Sathish
, S.
, Frouin
, J.
, and Na
, J.
, 2004
, Nondestructive Material Characterization With Applications to Aerospace Materials
, N. G. H.
Meyendorf
, P. B.
Nagy
, and S. I.
Rokhlin
, eds., Springer
, Berlin
, pp. 206
–233
.Copyright © 2020 by ASME
You do not currently have access to this content.
