The paper describes the development and description of the aerodynamic models used to estimate the aerodynamic loads on wind turbine constructions. This includes a status of the capabilities of computation fluid dynamics and the need for reliable airfoil data for the simpler engineering models. Also a discussion of the use of passive and active aerodynamic devices is included such as, e.g., Vortex Generators and distributed active flaps. Finally the problem of wakes in wind farms is addressed and a section of the likely future development of aerodynamic models for wind turbines is included.
Issue Section:
Technology Reviews
Keywords:
aerodynamics,
computational fluid dynamics,
flow simulation,
reviews,
vortices,
wakes,
wind turbines
References
1.
2.
IEC 61400-1 Ed. 3 CD. 2. Revision
, 2004, Wind Turbines. Part 1: Design Requirements
. edited by IEC TC88-MT1.3.
Offshore Standard DNV-OS-J101
, 2007, Design of Offshore Wind Turbine Structures
, Det Norske Veritas
.4.
Glauert
, H.
, 1963, “Airplane Propellers
,” Aerodynamic Theory
W. F.
Durand
, ed. Dover
, New York.
5.
Snel
, H.
and Schepers
, J. G.
, 1995, “Joint Investigation of Dynamic Inflow Effects and Implementation of an Engineering Method,
” Report No. ECN-C--94-107.6.
Schepers
, J.G.
, and Snel
, H.
, 1995, “Dynamic Inflow: Yawed Conditions and Partial Span Pitch Control
,” Report No. ECN-C--95-056.7.
Abbot
, H.
, and von Doenhoff
, A. E.
, 1959, Theory of Wing Sections
(Dover
, New York
).8.
Fuglsang
, P.
, and Bak
, C.
, 2003, “Status of the Risoe Wind Turbine Airfoils
,” EWEC Conference.9.
Fuglsang
, P.
and Bove
, S.
, 2008, “Wind Tunnel Testing of Airfoils Involves More Than Just Wall Corrections
,” EWEC Conference.10.
Drela
, M.
, 1989, “XFOIL – An Analysis and Design System for Low Reynolds Number Airfoils
,” Proceedings of the Conference of Low Reynolds Number Aerodynamics, Notre Dame, IN, Germany.11.
Tangler
, J. L.
, 2004, “Insight into Wind Turbine Stall and Post Stall Aerodynamics
,” Wind Energy
, 7
, pp. 247
–260
.12.
Snel
, H.
, Houwink
, B.
, Bosschers
, J.
, Piers
, W. J.
, van Bussel
, G. J. W.
, Bruining
, A.
, 1993, “Sectional Prediction of 3-D Effects for Stalled Flow on Rotating Blades and Comparison with Measurements
,” Proceedings of EWEC, pp. 395
–399
.13.
Chaviaropoulos
, P. K.
, and Hansen
, M. O. L.
, 2000, “Investigating Three-Dimensional and Rotational Effects on Wind Turbine Blades by Means of a Quasi-3D Navier-Stokes Solver
,” ASME J. Fluids Eng.
, 122
, pp. 330
–336
.14.
Bak
, C.
, and Fuglsang
, P.
, 2004, “A Method for Deriving 3D Airfoil Characteristics for a Wind Turbine
,” AIAA J.
, pp. 2004
–666
.15.
Bak
, C.
, and Johansen
, J.
, 2006, “Three-Dimensional Corrections of Airfoil Characteristics for Wind Turbines Based on Pressure Distributions
,” In Proceedings of EWEC Conference.16.
Øye
, S.
, 1991, “Dynamic Stall, Simulated as a Time Lag of Separation
,” in Proc. 4th IEA Symposium on the Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines
, K. F.
McAnulty
, ed., Report No. ETSU-N-118.17.
Leishman
, J. G.
, and Beddoes
, T. S.
, 1989, “A Semi-Empirical Model for Dynamic Stall
,” J. Am. Helicopter Soc.
, 34
(3
), pp. 3
–17
.18.
Leishman
, J. G.
, 2002, “Challenges in Modelling the Unsteady Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines
,” Wind Energy
, 5
, pp. 85
–132
.19.
Hansen
, M. H.
, Gaunaa
, M.
, and Madsen
, H. Aa.
, 2004, “Beddoes-Leishman Type Dynamic Stall Model in State-Space and Indicial Formulations,
” Report No. Risoe-R-1354(EN).20.
Katz
, J.
, and Plotkin
, A.
, 1991, Low-Speed Aerodynamics
, McGraw-Hill
, New York.
21.
Sant
, T.
, van Kuik
, G. A. M.
, and van Bussel
, G. J. W.
, 2009, “Estimating the Angle of Attack From Blade Pressure Measurements on the National Renewable Energy Laboratory Phase VI Rotor Using a Free Wake Vortex Model: Yawed Conditions
,” Wind Energy
, 12
(1
), pp. 1
–32
.22.
Coton
, F. N.
, Wang
, T.
, Galbraith
, R. A. McD.
, 2002, “An Examination of Key Aerodynamic Modelling Issues Raised by the NREL Blind Comparison
,” Wind Energy
, 5
, pp. 199
–212
.23.
Bagai
, A.
, and Leishman
J. G.
, 1995, “Rotor Free-Wake Modelling Using a Pseudo Implicit Relaxation Algorithm
,” J. Aircr.
, 32
(6
), pp. 1276
–1285
.24.
Voutsinas
, S. G.
, Beleiss
, M. A.
, and Rados
, K. G.
, 1995,“Investigation of the Yawed Operation of Wind Turbines by Means of a Vortex Particle Method
,” AGARD Conf. Proc.
, 552
, pp. 11.1
–11.11
.25.
Voutsinas
, S. G.
, 2006, “Vortex Methods in Aeronautics: How to Make Things Work
,” Int. J. Comput. Fluid Dyn.
, 20
(1
), pp. 3
–18
.26.
Srinivasan
, G. R.
, and McCroskey
, W. J.
, 1988, “Navier-Stokes Calculations of Hovering Rotor Flowfields
,” J. Aircr.
, 25
(10
), pp. 865
–874
.27.
Srinivasan
, G. R.
, Raghavan
, V.
, Duque
, E. P. N.
, 1991, “Flowfield Analysis of Modern Helicopter Rotors in Hover by Navier-Stokes Method,
” International Technical Specialists Meeting, Rotorcraft Acoustics and Rotor Fluid Dynamics
, Philadelphia, Pwnnsylvania
, October 15–17.28.
Srinivasan
, G. R.
, Baeder
, J. D.
, Obayashi
, S.
, and McCroskey
W. J.
, 1992, “Flowfield of a Lifting Rotor in Hover: A Navier-Stokes Simulation
,” AIAA J.
, 30
(10
), pp. 2371
–2378
.29.
Berkman
, M. E.
, Sankar
, L. N.
, Berezin
, C. R.
, and Torok
, M. S.
, 1997, “Navier-Stokes/Full Potential/Free-Wake Method for Rotor Flows
,” J. Aircr.
, 34
(5
), pp. 635
–640
.30.
Hansen
, M. O. L.
, Michelsen
, J. A.
, and Sorensen
, N. N.
, 1994, “Navier Stokes Solver for Rotating Wing
,” European Wind Energy Conf., Thessaloniki, pp. 557
–561
.31.
Hansen
, M. O. L.
, Sørensen
, J. N.
, Michelsen
, J. A.
, and Sørensen
, N. N.
, 1997, “A Global Navier-Stokes Rotor Prediction Model,
” Report No. AIAA 97-097.32.
Sørensen
, N. N.
, and Hansen
, M.O.L.
, 1998, “Rotor Performance Predictions using a Navier-Stokes Method,
” Report No. AIAA 98-0025.33.
Duque
, E. P. N.
, van Dam
, C. P.
, and Hughes
, S.
, 1999, “Navier-Stokes Simulations of the NREL Combined Experiment Phase II Rotor
” in Proceedings ASME Wind Energy Symposium, 37th AIAA Aerospace Science Meeting and Exhibit, Report No. AIAA 99-0037.34.
Sørensen
, N. N.
, and Michelsen
, J. A.
, 2000, “Aerodynamic Predictions for the Unsteady Aerodynamics Experiment Phase-II Rotor at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
” Report No. AIAA-2000-0037.35.
Fingersh
, L. J.
, Simms
, D.
, Hand
, M.
, Jager
, D.
, Contrell
, J.
, Robinson
, M.
, Schreck
, S.
, and Larwood
, S.
, 2001, “Wind Tunnel Testing of NREL’s Unsteady Aerodynamics Experiment,
” 39th Aerospace Sciences Meeting & Exhibit, Report No. AIAA-2001-0035.36.
Simms
, D.
, Schreck
, S.
, Hand
, M.
, and Fingersh
, L. J.
, 2001, “NREL Unsteady Aerodynamics Experiment in the NASA-Ames Wind Tunnel: A Comparison of Predictions to Measurements,
” Report No. NREL/TP-500-29494.37.
Sørensen
, N. N.
, Michelsen
, J. A.
, and Schreck
, S.
, 2002, “Navier-Stokes Predictions of the NREL Phase VI Rotor in the NASA Ames 80-by-120 Wind Tunnel,
” Report No. AIAA-2002-0032.38.
Xu
, G.
, and Sankar
, L. N.
, 2002, “Application of a Viscous Flow Methodology to the NREL Phase VI ROTOR,
” Report No. AIAA-2002-0030.39.
Duque
, E. P. N.
, Burklund
, M. D.
, and Johnson
W.
, 2003, “Navier-Stokes and Comprehensive Analysis Performance Predictions of the NREL Phase VI Experiment,
” Report No. AIAA-2003-0355.40.
Duque
, E. P. N.
, 2003, “Navier-Stokes Comprehensive Analysis Performance Predictions of the NREL Phase VI Experiment
,” ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng.
, 125
(4
), pp. 457
–467
.41.
Le Pape
, A.
, and Lecanu
, J.
, 2004, “3D Navier-Stokes Computations of a Stall Regulated Wind Turbine
,” Proceedings: The Science of Making Torque from Wind, Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands.42.
Tongchitpakdee
, C.
, Benjanirat
, S.
, and Sankar
, L. N.
, 2005, “Numerical Simulation of the Aeordynamics of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines Under Yawed Flow Conditions,
” Report No. AIAA-2005-0773.43.
Schmitz
, S.
, and Chattot
, J -J.
, 2006, “Characterization of Three-Dimensional Effects for Rotating and Parked NREL Phase VI Wind Turbine
,” ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng.
, 128
, pp. 445
–454
.44.
Gonzales
, A.
, and Munduate
, X.
, 2008, “Three-Dimensional and Rotational Aerodynamics on the NREL Phase VI Wind Turbine Blade
,” J. Sol. Energy Eng.
, 130
(3
), p. 031008
.45.
Gómez-Iradi
, S.
, Steijl
, R.
, and Barakos
, G. N.
, 2009, “Development and Validation of a CFD Technique for Aerodynamic Analysis of HAWT
,” J. Sol. Energy Eng.
, 131
(3
), p. 031009
.46.
Hu
, D. M.
, Hua
, O. Y.
, and Du
, Z. H.
, 2006, “A Study on Stall-Delay for Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
,” Renewable Energy
, 31
, pp. 821
–836
.47.
Bazilevs
, Y.
, Hsu
, M.-C.
, Kiendl
, J.
, Wüchner
, R.
, and Bletzinger
, K.-U.
, 2011, “3D Simulation of Wind Turbine Rotors at Full Scale. Part II: Fluid-Structure Interaction Modelling with Composite Blades
,” Int. J. Numer. Methods Fluids
, 65
, pp. 236
–253
.48.
Sørensen
, N. N.
, 2009, “CFD Modelling of Laminar-turbulent Transition for Airfoils and Rotors using the γ-Reθ Model
,” Wind Energy
, 12
, pp. 715
–733
.49.
Sørensen
, N. N.
, Bechmann
, A.
, and Zahle
F.
, 2010, “3D CFD Computations of Transitional Flows Using DES and a Correlation Based Transition Model
,” Wind Energy
, 14
(1
), pp. 77
–90
.50.
Sørensen
, J. N.
, 1999, “VISCWIND, Viscous Effects on Wind Turbine Blades,
” ET-AFM-9902, Department of Energy Engineering, Technical University of Denmark
, ISBN: 87-7475-218-9.51.
Chaviaropoulos
, P. K.
, Nikolaou
, I. G.
, Aggelis
, K.
, Sørensen
, N. N.
, Montgomerie
, B.
, von Geyr
, H.
, Hansen
, M. O. L.
, Kang
, S.
, Voutsinas
, S.
, and Dyrmose
, S. Z.
, 2001, “Viscous and Aeroelastic Effects on Wind Turbine Blades: The Viscel Project
,” European Wind Energy Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2–6 July.52.
Kang
, S.
, and Hirsch
, C.
, 2001, “Features of the 3D Viscous Flow Around Wind Turbine Blades Based on Numerical Solutions
,” European Wind Energy Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2–6 July.53.
Johansen
, J.
, Sørensen
, N. N.
, Reck
, M.
, Hansen
, M. O. L.
, Stuermer
, A.
, Ramboer
, J.
, Hirsch
, C.
, Ekaterinaris
, J.
, Voutsinas
, S.
, Perivolaris
, Y.
, 2005, “KNOW-BLADE task-3.3 report: Rotor Blade Computations with 3D Vortex Generators,
” Report No. Risø-R-1486(EN), p. 65
54.
Sørensen
, N. N.
, Johansen
, J.
, Conway
, S.
, Voutsinas
, S.
, Hansen
, M. O. L.
, and Stuermer
, A.
, 2005
“KNOW-BLADE task-3.2 Report: Tip Shape Study,
” Report No. Risø-R-1495(EN), p. 49
.55.
Politis
, E. S.
, Nikolaou
, I. G.
, Chaviaropoulos
, P. K.
, Bertagnolio
, F.
, Sørensen
, N. N.
, Johansen
, J.
, 2005, “KNOW-BLADE Task-4 Report: Navier-Stokes Aeroelasticity,
” Report No. Risø-R-1492(EN), p. 39
.56.
Johansen
, J.
, Sørensen
, N. N.
, Zahle
, F.
, Kang
, S.
, Nikolaou
, I.
, Politis
, E. S.
, Chaviaropoulos
, P. K.
, and Ekaterinaris
, J.
, 2004, “KNOW-BLADE Task-2 Report: Aerodynamic Accessories,
” Report No. Risø-R-1482(EN), p. 33
.57.
Sørensen
, N. N.
, Johansen
, J.
, and Conway
, S.
, 2004, “CFD cComputations of Wind Turbine Blade Loads During Standstill Operation KNOW-BLADE, Task 3.1 Report,
” Report No. Risø-R-1465(EN), p. 28
.58.
Sørensen
, N. N.
, and Madsen
, H. Aa.
, 2006, “Modelling of Transient Wind Turbine Loads During Pitch Motion (Paper and Poster)
,” Proceedings of the European Wind Energy Conference and Exhibition, Athens (GR), 27 Feb – 2 Mar (2006), pp. 10
.59.
Madsen
, H. Aa.
, 1982, “The Actuator Cylinder Flow Model for Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
”, Ph.D. dissertation, Aalborg University
.60.
van Kuik
, G. A. M.
, 1991, “On the Limitations of Froude’s Actuator Disc Concept,
” Ph.D. thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology
, the Netherlands
.61.
Sørensen
, J. N.
, and Myken
, A.
, 1992, “Unsteady Actuator Disc Model for Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
,” J. Wind. Eng. Ind. Aerodyn.
, 39
, pp. 139
–149
.62.
Sørensen
, J. N.
, and Kock
, C. W.
, 1995, “A Model for Unsteady Rotor Aerodynamics
,” J. Wind. Eng. Ind. Aerodyn.
, 58
, pp. 259
–275
.63.
Sørensen
, J. N.
, and Mikkelsen
, R.
, 2001, “On the Validity of the Blade Element Momentum Theory
,” P.
Helm
, and A.
Zervos
, eds., Proceedings of the (2001) European Wind Energy Conference and Exhibition
, WIP-Renewable Energies
, Munchen
, pp. 362
–366
.64.
Madsen
, H. Aa.
, 1996, “A CFD Analysis for the Actuator Disc Flow Compared with Momentum Theory Results
,” B.
Pedersen
, ed., Proceedings of the 10th IEA Symposium on the Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines
, Department of Fluid Mechanics, The Technical University of Denmark, pp. 109
–124
.65.
Masson
, C.
, Smaïli
, A.
, and Leclerc
, C.
, 2001, “Aerodynamic Analysis of HAWTs Operating in Unsteady Conditions
,” Wind Energy
, 4
(1
), pp. 1
–22
.66.
Sørensen
, J. N.
, Shen
, W. Z.
, and Munduate
, X.
, 1998, “Analysis of Wake States by a Full-Field Actuator Disc Model
,” Wind Energy
, 1
, pp. 73
–88
.67.
Madsen
, H. Aa
, and Rasmussen
, F.
, 1999, “The Influence of Energy Conversion and Induction From Large Blade Deflections
,” Proceedings of the European Wind Energy Conference, James & James, pp. 138
–41
.68.
Mikkelsen
, R.
, Sørensen
, J. N.
, and Shen
, W. Z.
, 2001, “Modeling and Analysis of the Flow Field Around a Coned Rotor
,” Wind Energy
, 4
, pp. 121
–135
.69.
Ammara
, I.
, Leclerc
, C.
, and Masson
, C.
, 2002, “A Viscous Three-Dimensional Differential/Actuator Disc Method for Aerodynamic Analysis of Wind Farms
,” ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng.
, 124
(4
), pp. 345
–356
.70.
Ivanell
, S.
, 2009, “Numerical Computations of Wind Turbine Wakes,
” Ph.D. thesis, KTH, Royal Institute of Technology
, Stokholm
.71.
Sørensen
, J. N.
, and Shen
, W. Z.
, 2002, “Numerical Modelling of wWind tTurbine Wakes
,” ASME J. Fluids Eng.
, 124
(2
), pp. 393
–399
.72.
Leclerc
, C.
, and Masson
, C.
, 2004, “Towards Blade-Tip Vortex Simulation with an Actuator-Lifting Surface Model,
” Report No. AIAA-2004-0667.73.
Jonkman
, J.
, Butterfield
, S.
, Musial
, W.
, and Scott
, G.
, 2009, “Definition of a 5-MW Reference Wind Turbine for Offshore System Development,
” Technical Report No. NREL/TP-500-38060.74.
Velte
, C. M.
, 2009, “Characterization of Vortex Generator Induced Flow,
” Ph.D. thesis, DTU Mechanical Engineering
, DCAMM Special Report No. S118.75.
Taylor
, H. D.
, 1947, “The Elimination of Diffuser Separation by Vortex Generators,
” United Aircraft Corporation Connecticut
, Research Department Report No R-4012-3.76.
Taylor
, H. D.
, 1950, “Summary Report on Vortex Generators,
” United Aircraft Corporation Connecticut
, Research Department Report No R-05280-9.77.
Øye
, S.
, 1995, “The Effect of Vortex Generators on the Performance of the ELKRAFT 1000 kW Turbine,
” 9th IEA Symposium on Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines, Stockholm, ISSN 0590-8809.78.
Lin
, J. C.
, and Howard
, F. G.
, 1989, “Turbulent Flow Separation Control Through Passive Techniques
,” AIAA 2nd Shear Flow Conf., Tempa AZ, AIAA Paper No. 89-0976.79.
Lin
, J. C.
, Howard
, F.G.
, and Bushnell
, D.M.
, 1990, “Investigation of Several Passive and Active Methods for Turbulent Flow Separation Control
,” AIAA 21st Fluid Dynamics, Plasma Dynamics and Laser Conference, Seattle, Paper No. 90-1598.80.
Lin
, J. C.
, Selby
, G. V.
, and Howard
, F. G.
, 1991, “Exploratory Study of Vortex Generating Devices for Turbulent Flow Separation cControl,
” 29th Aerospace Science Meeting, Reno, paper No. 91-0042.81.
Lin
, J. C.
, 1999, “Control of Turbulent Boundary Layer Separation Using Microvortex Generators,
” AIAA Paper No. 99-3404.82.
Lin
, J. C.
, 2002, “Review of rResearch on Low-Profile Vortex Generators to Control Boundary Layer Separation
,” Prog. Aerosp. Sci.
, 38
, pp. 389
–420
.83.
Timmer
, W. A.
, and van Rooij
, R. P. J. O. M.
, 2003, “Summary of the Delft University Wind Turbine Dedicated Airfoils,
” Report No. AIAA-2003-0352.84.
Bragg
, M. B.
, and Gregorek
G. M.
, 1987, “Experimental Study of Airfoil Performance with Vortex Generators
,” J. Aircr.
, 24
, pp. 305
–309
.85.
Godard
, G.
, and Stanislas
, M.
, 2006, “Control of Decelerating Boundary Layer. Part 1: Optimization of Passive Vortex Generators
,” Aerosp. Sci. Technol.
, 10
, pp. 181
–191
.86.
Velte
, C. M.
, Hansen
M. O. L.
, and Okulov
, V. L.
, 2009, “Helical Structure of Longitudinal Vortices Embedded in Turbulent Wall Bounded Flow
,” J. Fluid Mech.
, 619
pp. 167
–177
.87.
Liebeck
, R. H.
, 1978, “Design of Subsonic Airfoils for High Lift
,” AIAA J.
, 15
(9
), pp. 547
–561
.88.
Tongchitpakdee
, C.
, Benjanirat
, S.
, and Sankar
, L. N.
, 2006, “Numerical Studies of the Effects of Active and Passive Circulation Enhancement Concepts on Wind Turbine Performance
,” ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng.
, 128
, pp. 432
–444
.89.
Troolin
, D. R.
, Longmire
, E. K.
, and Lai
, W. T.
, 2006, “Time Resolved PIV Analysis of Flow Over a NACA 0015 Airfoil with Gurney Flap
,” Exp. Fluids
, 41
, pp. 241
–254
.90.
Li
, Y.
, Wang
, J.
, and Zhang
, P.
, 2002, “Effects of Gurney Flaps on a NACA0012 Airfoil
,” Flow, Turbul. Combust.
, 68
, pp. 27
–39
.91.
Hansen
, M. H.
, 2007, “Aeroelastic Instability Problems for Wind Turbines
,” Wind Energy
, 10
, pp. 551
–577
.92.
Bossanyi
, E. A.
, 2000, “The Design of Closed Loop Controllers for Wind Turbines
,” Wind Energy
, 3
(3
), pp. 149
–163
.93.
Bossanyi
, E. A.
, 2003, “Wind Turbine Control for Load Reduction
,” Wind Energy
, 6
, pp. 229
–244
.94.
Larsen
, T. J.
, Madsen
, H. Aa.
, and Thomsen
, K.
, 2005, “Active Load Reduction Using Individual Pitch, Based on Local Inflow Measurements
,” Wind Energy
, 8
, pp. 67
–80
.95.
Bossanyi
, E. A.
, 2005, “Further Load Reductions With Individual Pitch Control
,” Wind Energy
, 8
(4
), pp. 481
–485
.96.
2006
, Proceedings of the IEA Topical Expert Meeting on The Application of Smart Structures For Large Wind Turbine Rotor Blades.97.
Barlas
, T. K.
, and vanKuik
, G. A. M.
, 2010, “Review of State of the Art in Smart Rotor Control Research for Wind Turbines
,” Prog. Aerosp. Sci.
, 46
, pp. 1
–27
.98.
Yen Nakafuji
, D. T.
, Yen
, van Dam
, C. P.
, Smith
, R. L.
, and Collins
, S. D.
, 2001, “Active Load Control for Airfoils
,” ASME
, 123
, pp. 282
–289
.99.
Troldborg
, N.
, 2005, “Computational Study of the RisøB1-18 Airfoil with a Hinged Flap Providing Variable Trailing Edge Geometry
,” Wind Energy
, 29
, pp. 89
–113
.100.
Buhl
, T.
, Gaunaa
, M.
, and Bak
, C.
, 2005, “Potential Load Reduction Using Airfoils with Variable Trailing Edge Geometry
,” ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng.
, 127
, pp. 503
–516
.101.
Gaunaa
, M.
, 2006, “Unsteady 2D Potential-Flow Forces on a Thin Variable Geometry Airfoil Undergoing Arbitrary Motion,
” Technical Report No. Risø-R-1478(EN).102.
Bak
, C.
, Gaunaa
, M.
, Andersen
, P. B.
, Buhl
, T.
, Hansen
, P.
, and Clemmensen
, K.
, 2007, “Wind Tunnel Test on Wind Turbine Airfoil with Adaptive Trailing Edge Geometry,
” 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. Reno, NV.103.
Riziotis
, V. A.
, and Voutsinas
, S. G.
, 2008, “Aero-Elastic Modelling of the Active Flap Concept for Load Control
,” in Proceedings of the EWEC(2008), Brussels, Belgium.104.
Lackner
, M. A.
, and van Kuik
, G.A.
, 2010, “Comparison of Smart Rotor Control Approaches Using Trailing Edge Flaps and Individual Pitch Control
,” Wind Energy
, 13
, pp. 117
–134
.105.
Andersen
, P. B.
, Henriksen
, L.
, Gaunaa
, M.
, Bak
, C.
, and Buhl
, T.
, 2010, “Deformable Trailing Edge Flaps for Modern Megawatt Wind Turbine Controllers Using Strain Gauge Sensors
,” Wind Energy
, 13
, pp. 193
–206
.106.
Andersen
, P. B.
, 2010, “Advanced Load Alleviation for Wind Turbines Using Adaptive Trailing Edge Flaps: Sensoring and Control,
” Risø-PhD-report.107.
Barthelmie
, R. J.
, and Jensen
, L. E.
, 2010, “Evaluation of Power Losses due to Wind Turbine Wakes at the Nysted Offshore Wind Farm
,” Wind Energy
, 13
, pp. 573
–586
.108.
Chamorro
, L. P.
, and Porté-Agel
, F.
, 2010, “Effects of Thermal Stability and Incoming Boundary-Layer Flow Characteristics on Wind-Turbine Wakes: A Wind Tunnel Study
,” Boundary-Layer Meteorol.
, 136
, pp. 515
–533
.109.
Barthelmie
, R. J.
, Frandsen
, S. T.
, Nielsen
, N. M.
, Pryor
, S. C.
, Rethore
, P. E.
, and Jørgensen
, H. E.
, 2007, “Modelling and Measurements of Power Losses and Turbulence Intensity in Wind Turbine Wakes at Middelgrunden Offshore Wind Farm
,” Wind Energy
, 10
, pp. 517
–528
.110.
Dahlberg
, J -Å.
, and Thor
, S -E.
, 2009, “Power Performance and Wake Effects in the Closely Spaced Lillgrund Wind Farm
,” Proceedings of the European Offshore Wind Energy Conference, 14–16 September, Stockholm.111.
Barthelmie
, R. J.
, Pryor
, S. C.
, Frandsen
, S. T.
, Hansen
, K.
, Schepers
, J. G.
, Rados
, K.
, Schlez
, W.
, Neubert
, A.
, Jensen
, L. E.
, and Neckelmann
, S.
, 2010, “Quantifying the Impact of Wind Turbine Wakes on Power Output at Offshore Wind Farms
,” J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol.
, 27
, pp. 1302
–1317
.112.
Barthelmie
, R. J.
, Hansen
, K.
, Frandsen
, S. T.
, Rathmann
, O.
, Schepers
, J. G.
, Schlez
, W.
, Phillips
, J.
, Rados
, K.
, Zervos
, A.
, Politis
, E. S.
, and Chaviaropoulos
, P. K.
, 2009, “Modelling and Measuring Flow and Wind Turbine Wakes in Large Wind Farms Offshore
,” Wind Energy
, 12
, pp. 431
–444
.113.
Whittlesey
, R. W.
, Liska
, S.
, and Dabiri
, J. O.
, 2010, “Fish Schooling as a Basis for Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Farm Design
,” Bioinspiration and Biomimetics
, 5
(3
), p. 035005
.114.
Frandsen
, S.
, 2003, “Turbulence and Turbulence Generated Structural Loading in Wind Turbine Clusters,
” Risø Report No. Risø-R-1188.115.
Madsen
, H. Aa.
, Larsen
, G. C.
, Larsen
, T. J.
, Troldborg
, N.
, and Mikkelsen
, R. F.
, 2010, “Calibration and Validation of the Dynamic Wake Meandering Model for Implementation in an Aeroelastic Code
,” ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng.
, 132
(4
), p. 041014
.116.
Johansen
, J.
, Madsen
, H. Aa.
, Gaunaa
, M.
, and Bak
, C.
, 2009, “Design of a Wind Turbine Rotor for Maximum Aerodynamic Efficiency
,” Wind Energy
, 12
, pp. 261
–273
.117.
Madsen
, H. Aa.
, Bak
, C.
Døssing
, M.
Mikkelsen
, R.
and Øye
, S.
, 2010, “Validation and modification of the Blade Element Momentum Theory Based on Comparisons with Actuator Disc Simulations
,” Wind Energy
, 13
, pp. 373
–389
.118.
Madsen
, H. Aa.
, Riziotis
, V.
, Zahle
, F.
, Hansen
, M. O. L.
, Snel
, H.
, Grasso
, F.
, Larsen
, T. J.
, Politis
, E.
, and Rasmussen
, F.
, “BEM Modeling of Inflow with Shear in Comparison with Advanced Model Results
,” Wind Energy
(submitted).119.
Shen
, W. Z.
, Mikkelsen
, R.
, Sørensen
, J. N.
, and Bak
, C.
, 2005, “Tip Loss Corrections for Wind Turbine Computations
,” Wind Energy
, 8
(4
), pp. 457
–475
.120.
Madsen
, H. Aa.
, Bak
, C.
, Paulsen
, U. S.
, Gaunaa
, M.
, Sørensen
, N. N.
, Fuglsang
, P.
, Romblad
, J.
, Olsen
, N. A.
, Enevoldsen
, P.
, Laursen
, J.
, and Jensen
L. E.
, 2010, “The DAN-AERO MW Experiments
,” Conference Proceedings — 48th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition.121.
Scheurich
, F.
, Fletcher
, T. M.
, and Brown
, R. E.
, 2011, “Simulating the Aerodynamic Performance and Wake Dynamics of a Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine
,” Wind Energy
, 14
, pp. 159
–177
.Copyright © 2011
by American Society of Mechanical Engineers
You do not currently have access to this content.
