Numerical finite element (FE) models of the neck have been developed to simulate occupant response and predict injury during motor vehicle collisions. However, there is a paucity of data on the response of young cervical spine segments under dynamic loading in flexion and extension, which is essential for the development or validation of tissue-level FE models. This limitation was identified during the development and validation of the FE model used in this study. The purpose of this study was to measure the high rotation rate loading response of human cervical spine segments in flexion and extension, and to investigate a new tissue-level FE model of the cervical spine with the experimental data to address a limitation in available data. Four test samples at each segment level from C2–C3 to C7–T1 were dissected from eight donors and were tested to 10 deg of rotation at 1 and 500 deg/s in flexion and extension using a custom built test apparatus. There was strong evidence (p < 0.05) of increased stiffness at the higher rotation rate above 4 deg of rotation in flexion and at 8 deg and 10 deg of rotation in extension. Cross-correlation software, Cora, was used to evaluate the fit between the experimental data and model predictions. The average rating was 0.771, which is considered to demonstrate a good correlation to the experimental data.
Issue Section:
Research Papers
References
1.
Stein
, D. M.
, Kufera
, J. A.
, Ho
, S. M.
, Ryb
, G. E.
, Dischinger
, P. C.
, O'Connor
, J. V.
, and Scalea
, T. M.
, 2011
, “Occupant and Crash Characteristics for Case Occupants With Cervical Spine Injuries Sustained in Motor Vehicle Collisions
,” J. Trauma
, 70
(2
), pp. 299
–309
.10.1097/TA.0b013e3181f8aa912.
Wang
, M. C.
, Pintar
, F. A.
, Yoganandan
, Y.
, and Maiman
, D. J.
, 2009
, “The Continued Burden of Spine Fractures After Motor Vehicle Crashes
,” J. Neurosurg. Spine
, 10
(2), pp. 86
–92
.10.3171/SPI.2008.10.082793.
Reed
, M. A.
, Naftel
, R. P.
, Carter
, S.
, MacLennan
, P. A.
, McGwin
, G.
, and Rue
, L. W.
, III, 2006
, “Motor Vehicle Restraint System Use and Risk of Spine Injury
,” Traffic Inj. Prev.
, 7
(3
), pp. 256
–263
.10.1080/153895806006606414.
Hasler
, R. M.
, Exadaktylos
, A. K.
, Bouamra
, O.
, Benneker
, L. M.
, Clancy
, M.
, Sieber
, R.
, Zimmermann
, H.
, and Lecky
, F.
, 2011
, “Epidemiology and Predictors of Spinal Injury in Adult Major Trauma Patients: European Cohort Study
,” Eur. Spine J.
, 20
(12), pp. 2174
–2180
.10.1007/s00586-011-1866-75.
Jackson
, A. B.
, Dijkers
, M.
, Devivo
, M. J.
, and Poczatek
, R. B.
, 2004
, “A Demographic Profile of New Traumatic Spinal Cord Injuries: Change and Stability Over 30 Years
,” Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil.
, 85
(11
), pp. 1740
–1748
.10.1016/j.apmr.2004.04.0356.
De Jager
, M.
, Sauren
, A.
, Thurnnissen
, J.
, and Wismans
, J.
, 1996
, “A Global and a Detailed Mathematical Model for Head-Neck Dynamics
,” Proc. 40th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Albuquerque, NM, Society of Automative Engineers, Inc., SAE Technical Paper No. 962430
, pp. 269
–281
.10.4271/9624307.
Van der Horst
, M. J.
, 2002
, “Human Head Neck Response in Frontal, Lateral and Rear End Impact Loading—Modelling and Validation
,” Ph.D. thesis, University of Eindhoven, Eindhoven.8.
Halldin
, P. H.
, Brolin
, K.
, Kleiven
, S.
, von Holst
, H.
, Jakobsson
, L.
, and Palmertz
, C.
, 2000
, “Investigation of Conditions That Affect Neck Compression-Flexion Injuries Using Numerical Techniques
,” Proc. 44th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Atlanta, GA, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., SAE Technical Paper No. 2000-01-SC10, pp. 127
–138
.9.
Meyer
, F.
, Bourdet
, N.
, Deck
, C.
, and Willinger
, R.
, 2004
, “Human Neck Finite Element Model Development and Validation Against Original Experimental Data
,” Proc. 48th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Nashville, TN, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., SAE Technical Paper No. 2004-22-0008, pp. 177
–206
.10.
Zhang
, Q. H.
, Teo
, E. C.
, Ng
, H. W.
, and Lee
, V. S.
, 2006
, “Finite Element Analysis of Moment-Rotation Relationships for Human Cervical Spine
,” J. Biomech.
, 39
(1
), pp. 189
–193
.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.10.02911.
Kallemeyn
, N.
, Gandhi
, A.
, Kode
, S.
, and Shivanna
, K.
, 2010
, “Validation of a C2–C7 Cervical Spine Finite Element Model Using Specimen-Specific Flexibility Data
,” Med. Eng. Phys.
, 32
(5
), pp. 482
–489
.10.1016/j.medengphy.2010.03.00112.
Panzer
, M. B.
, Fice
, J. B.
, and Cronin
, D. S.
, 2011
, “Cervical Spine Response in Frontal Crash
,” Med. Eng. Phys.
, 33
(9
), pp. 1147
–1159
.10.1016/j.medengphy.2011.05.00413.
Gadd
, C. W.
, 1966
, “Use of a Weighted-Impulse Criterion for Estimating Injury Hazard
,” Proc. 10th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Hollomon Air Force Base, NM, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., SAE Technical Paper No. 660793
, pp. 164
–174
.10.4271/66079314.
Versace
, J.
, 1971
, “A Review of the Severity Index
,” Proc. 15th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Coronado, CA, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., SAE Technical Paper No. 710881
, pp. 771
–796
.10.4271/71088115.
Nahum
, A. M.
, and Melvin
, J. W.
, 1993
, Accidental Injury: Biomechanics and Prevention
, 2nd ed., Springer
, New York
.16.
Gayzik
, F. S.
, 2012
, “Completion of Phase I Development of the Global Human Body Models Consortium Mid-Sized Male Full Body Finite Element Model
,” available at http://www.ghbmc.com/GHBMCStatusPhase1.pdf (Accessed Dec 2013).17.
Moroney
, S. P.
, Schultz
, A. B.
, Miller
, J. A.
, and Andersson
, G. B.
, 1988
, “Load–Displacement Properties of Lower Cervical Spine Motion Segments
,” J. Biomech.
, 21
(9
), pp. 769
–779
.10.1016/0021-9290(88)90285-018.
Goel
, V. K.
, Clark
, C. R.
, Gallaes
, K.
, and Liu
, Y. K.
, 1988
, “Moment-Rotation Relationships of the Ligamentous Occipito-Atlanto-Axial Complex
,” J. Biomech.
, 21
(8), pp. 673
–680
.10.1016/0021-9290(88)90204-719.
Wen
, N.
, Lavaste
, F.
, Santin
, J. J.
, and Lassau
, J. P.
, 1993
, “Three-Dimensional Biomechanical Properties of the Human Cervical Spine In Vitro
,” Eur. Spine J.
, 2
(1), pp. 2
–11
.10.1007/BF0030104820.
Camacho
, D. L. A.
, Nightingale
, R. W.
, Robinette
, J. J.
, Vanguri
, S. K.
, Coates
, D. J.
, and Myers
, B. S.
, 1997
, “Experimental Flexibility Measurements for the Development of a Computational Head-Neck Model Validated for Near-Vertex Head Impact
,” Proc. 41st Stapp Car Crash Conference, Lake Buena Vista, FL, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., SAE Technical Paper No. 973345
, pp. 473
–486
.10.4271/97334521.
Winkelstein
, B. A.
, Nightingale
, R. W.
, and Myers
, B. S.
, 2000
, “A Biomechanical Investigation of the Cervical Facet Capsule and Its Role in Whiplash Injury
,” Spine
, 25
(10
), pp. 1238
–1246
.10.1097/00007632-200005150-0000722.
Wheeldon
, J. A.
, Pintar
, F. A.
, Knowles
, S.
, and Yoganandan
, N.
, 2006
, “Experimental Flexion/Extension Data Corridors for Validation of Finite Element Models of the Young, Normal Cervical Spine
,” J. Biomech.
, 39
(2
), pp. 375
–380
.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.11.01423.
Voo
, L. M.
, Pintar
, F. A.
, Yoganandan
, N.
, and Liu
, Y. K.
, 1998
, “Static and Dynamic Bending Responses of the Human Cervical Spine
,” ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
, 120
(6
), pp. 693
–696
.10.1115/1.283488024.
Nightingale
, R. W.
, Winkelstein
, B. A.
, Knaub
, K. E.
, Richardson
, W. J.
, Luck
, J. F.
, and Myers
, B. S.
, 2002
, “Comparative Strengths and Structural Properties of the Upper and Lower Cervical Spine in Flexion and Extension
,” J. Biomech.
, 35
(6
), pp. 725
–732
.10.1016/S0021-9290(02)00037-425.
Nightingale
, R. W.
, Chancey
, C. V.
, Ottaviano
, D.
, Luck
, J. F.
, Tran
, L.
, Prange
, M.
, and Myers
, B. S.
, 2007
, “Flexion and Extension Structural Properties and Strengths for Male Cervical Spine Segments
,” J. Biomech.
, 40
(3
), pp. 535
–542
.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2006.02.01526.
Thunnissen
, J. G. M.
, Wismans
, J.
, Ewing
, C. L.
, and Thomas
, D. J.
, 1995
, “Human Volunteer Head-Neck Response in Frontal Flexion: A New Analysis
,” Proc. 39th Stapp Car Crash Conference, San Diego, CA, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., SAE Technical Paper No. 952721
, pp. 3065
–3086
.10.4271/95272127.
Panjabi
, M. M.
, Colewicki
, J.
, Nibu
, K.
, Grauer
, J. N.
, Babat
, L. B.
, and Dvorak
, J.
, 1998
, “Mechanism of Whiplash Injury
,” Clin. Biomech.
, 13
(4–5), pp. 239
–249
.10.1016/S0268-0033(98)00033-328.
Deng
, B.
, Begeman
, P. C.
, Yang
, K. H.
, Tashman
, S.
, and King
, A. I.
, 2000
, “Kinematics of Human Cadaver Cervical Spine During Low Speed Rear-End Impacts
,” Proc. 44th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Atlanta, GA, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., SAE Technical Paper No. 2000-01-SC13, pp. 171
–188
.29.
Yoganandan
, N.
, Pintar
, F. A.
, Stemper
, B. D.
, Schlick
, M. B.
, Philippens
, M.
, and Wismans
, J.
, 2000
, “Biomechanics of Human Occupants in Simulated Rear Crashes: Documentation of Neck Injuries and Comparison of Injury Criteria
,” Proc. 44th Stapp Car Crash Conference, Atlanta, GA, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., SAE Technical Paper No. 2000-01-SC14, pp. 189
–204
.30.
Panjabi
, M. M.
, Crisco
, J. J.
, Vasavada
, A.
, Oda
, T.
, Cholewicki
, J.
, Nibu
, K.
, and Shin
, E.
, 2001
, “Mechanical Properties of the Human Cervical Spine as Shown by Three-Dimensional Load-Displacement Curves
,” Spine
, 26
(24
), pp. 2692
–2700
.10.1097/00007632-200112150-0001231.
Panjabi
, M. M.
, Ito
, S.
, Ivancic
, P. C.
, and Rubin
, W.
, 2005
, “Evaluation of the Intervertebral Neck Injury Criterion Using Simulated Rear Impacts
,” J. Biomech.
, 38
(8), pp. 1694
–1701
.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.07.01532.
Robertson
, A.
, Branfoot
, T.
, Barlow
, I. F.
, and Giannoudis
, P. V.
, 2002
, “Spinal Injury Patterns Resulting From Car and Motorcycle Accidents
,” Spine
, 27
(24), pp. 2825
–2830
.10.1097/00007632-200212150-0001933.
Iida
, T.
, Abumi
, K.
, Kotani
, Y.
, and Kaneda
, K.
, 2002
, “Effects of Aging and Spinal Degeneration on Mechanical Properties of Lumbar Supraspinous and Interspinous Ligaments
,” Spine
, 2
(2), pp. 95
–100
.10.1016/S1529-9430(02)00142-034.
Stemper
, B. D.
, Board
, D.
, Yoganandan
, N.
, and Wolfla
, C. E.
, 2010
, “Biomechanical Properties of Human Thoracic Spine Disc Segments
,” J. Craniovertebral Junction Spine
, 1
(1
), pp. 18
–22
.10.4103/0974-8237.6547735.
Christiansen
, B. A.
, Kopperdahl
, D. L.
, Kiel
, D. P.
, Keaveny
, T. M.
, and Bouxsein
, M. L.
, 2011
, “Mechanical Contributions of the Cortical and Trabecular Compartments Contribute to Differences in Age-Related Changes in Vertebral Body Strength in Men and Women Assessed by QCT-Based Finite Element Analysis
,” J. Bone Miner. Res.
, 26
(5), pp. 974
–983
.10.1002/jbmr.28736.
Amevo
, B.
, Worth
, D.
, and Bogduk
, N.
, 1991
, “Instantaneous Axes of Rotation of the Typical Cervical Motion Segments: A Study in Normal Volunteers
,” Clin. Biomech.
, 6
(2), pp. 111
–117
.10.1016/0268-0033(91)90008-E37.
Panzer
, M. B.
, and Cronin
, D. S.
, 2009
, “C4–C5 Segment Finite Element Model Development, Validation, and Load-Sharing Investigation
,” J. Biomech.
, 42
(4), pp. 480
–490
.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008.11.03638.
Fung
, Y.-C.
, 1993
, “Biomechanics: Mechanical Properties of Living Tissues
, 2nd ed., Springer
, New York
.39.
Gayzik
, F. S.
, Moreno
, D. P.
, Geer
, C. P.
, Wuertzer
, S. D.
, Martin
, R. S.
, and Stitzel
, J. D.
, 2011
, “Development of a Full Body CAD Dataset for Computational Modeling: A Multi-Modality Approach
,” Ann. Biomed. Eng.
, 39
(10
), pp. 2568
–2583
.10.1007/s10439-011-0359-540.
Fice
, J. B.
, and Cronin
, D. S.
, 2012
, “Investigation of Whiplash Injuries in the Upper Cervical Spine Using a Detailed Neck Model
,” J. Biomech.
, 45
(6
), pp. 1098
–1102
.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2012.01.01641.
DeWit
, J. A.
, and Cronin
, D. S.
, 2012
, “Cervical Spine Segment Finite Element Model for Traumatic Injury Prediction
,” J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater.
, 10
, pp. 138
–150
.10.1016/j.jmbbm.2012.02.01542.
Mattucci
, S. F. E.
, Moulton
, J. A.
, Chandrashekar
, N.
, and Cronin
, D. S.
, 2012
, “Strain Rate Dependent Properties of Younger Human Cervical Spine Ligaments
,” J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater.
, 10
, pp. 216
–226
.10.1016/j.jmbbm.2012.02.00443.
Gehre
, C.
, Gades
, H.
, and Wernicke
, P.
, 2009
, “Objective Rating of Signals Using Test and Simulation Responses
,” 21st International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles Conference (ESV)
, Stuttgart, Germany
, June 15–18, Paper No. 09-0407.44.
Xu
, L.
, Agaram
, V.
, Rouhana
, S.
, Hultman
, R. W.
, Kostyniuk
, G. W.
, McCleary
, J.
, Mertz
, H.
, Nusholtz
, G. S.
, and Scherer
, R.
, 2000
, “Repeatability Evaluation of the Pre-Prototype NHTSA Advanced Dummy Compared to the Hybrid III
,” SAE World Congress, SAE Paper No. 2000-01-0165
.10.4271/2000-01-016545.
Ebara
, S.
, Iatridis
, J. C.
, Setton
, L. A.
, Foster
, R. J.
, Mow
, V. C.
, and Weidenbaum
, M.
, 1996
, “Tensile Properties of Nondegenerate Human Lumbar Anulus Fibrosus
,” Spine
, 21
(4
), pp. 452
–461
.10.1097/00007632-199602150-0000946.
Acaroglu
, E. R.
, Iatridis
, J. C.
, Setton
, L. A.
, Foster
, R. J.
, Mow
, V. C.
, and Weidenbaum
, M.
, 1995
, “Degeneration and Aging Affect the Tensile Behavior of Human Lumbar Anulus Fibrosus
,” Spine
, 20
(24
), pp. 2690
–2701
.10.1097/00007632-199512150-0001047.
Iatridis
, J. C.
, Setton
, L. A.
, Weidenbaum
, M.
, and Mow
, V. C.
, 1997
, “The Viscoelastic Behavior of the Non-Degenerate Human Lumbar Nucleus Pulpopus in Shear
,” J. Biomech.
, 30
(10
), pp. 1005
–1013
.10.1016/S0021-9290(97)00069-948.
Skrzypiec
, D. M.
, Klein
, A.
, Bishop
, N. E.
, Stahmer
, F.
, Püschel
, K.
, Seidel
, H.
, Morlock
, M. M.
, and Huber
, G.
, 2012
, “Shear Strength of the Human Lumbar Spine
,” Clin. Biomech.
, 27
(7
), pp. 646
–651
.10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2012.04.00349.
Nachemson
, A. L.
, Schultz
, A. B.
, and Berkson
, M. H.
, 1979
, “Mechanical Properties of Human Lumbar Spine Motion Segments: Influences of Age, Sex, Disc Level, and Degeneration
,” Spine
, 4
(1
), pp. 1
–8
.10.1097/00007632-197901000-0000150.
Shim
, V. P. W.
, Liu
, J. F.
, and Lee
, V. S.
, 2005
, “A Technique for Dynamic Tensile Testing of Human Cervical Spine Ligaments
,” Exp. Mech.
, 36
, pp. 1281
–1289
.10.1007/s11340-006-5865-251.
Ivancic
, P.
, Coe
, M. P.
, Ndu
, A. B.
, Tominaga
, Y.
, Carlson
, E. J.
, Rubin
, W.
, Dipl-Ing
, F. H.
, and Panjabi
, M. M.
, 2007
, “Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Intact Human Cervical Spine Ligaments
,” Spine J.
, 7
(6), pp. 659
–665
.10.1016/j.spinee.2006.10.01452.
Bass
, C. R.
, Lucas
, S. R.
, Salzar
, R. S.
, Oyen
, M. L.
, Planchak
, C.
, Shender
, B. S.
, and Paskoff
, G.
, 2007
, “Failure Properties of Cervical Spinal Ligaments Under Fast Strain Rate Deformations
,” Spine
, 32
(1
), pp. E7
–E13
.10.1097/01.brs.0000251058.53905.eb53.
Holzapfel
, G. A.
, Schulze-Bauer
, C. A.
, Feigl
, G.
, and Regitnig
, P.
, 2005
, “Single Lamellar Mechanics of the Human Lumbar Annulus Fibrosus
,” Biomech. Model Mechaniobiol.
, 3
(3
), pp. 125
–140
.10.1007/s10237-004-0053-854.
Dvorak
, J.
, Panjabi
, M. M.
, Novotny
, J. E.
, and Antinnes
, J. A.
, 1991
, “In Vivo Flexion/Extension of the Normal Cervical Spine
,” J. Orthop. Res.
, 9
(6
), pp. 828
–834
.10.1002/jor.110009060855.
Lucas
, S. R.
, Bass
, C. R.
, Salzar
, R. S.
, Oyen
, M. L.
, Planchak
, C.
, Ziemba
, A.
, Shender
, B. S.
, and Paskoff
, G.
, 2008
, “Viscoelastic Properties of the Cervical Spinal Ligaments Under Fast Strain Rate Deformations
,” Acta Biomater.
, 4
(1
), pp. 117
–125
.10.1016/j.actbio.2007.08.00356.
Troyer
, K. L.
, and Puttlitz
, C. M.
, 2012
, “Nonlinear Viscoelasticity Plays an Essential Role in the Functional Behavior of Spinal Ligaments
,” J. Biomech.
, 45
(4
), pp. 684
–691
.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2011.12.00957.
Riches
, P. E.
, Dhillon
, N.
, Lotz
, J.
, Woods
, A. W.
, and McNally
, D. S.
, 2002
, “The Internal Mechanics of the Intervertebral Disc Under Cyclic Loading
,” J. Biomech.
, 35
(9
), pp. 1263
–1271
.10.1016/S0021-9290(02)00070-258.
Périé
, D.
, Korda
, D.
, and Iatridis
, J. C.
, 2005
, “Confined Compression Experiments on Bovine Nucleus Pulposus and Annulus Fibrosus: Sensitivity of the Experiment in the Determination of Compressive Modulus and Hydraulic Permeability
,” J. Biomech.
, 28
(11
), pp. 2164
–2171
.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.10.00259.
Stokes
, I. A. F.
, Laible
, J. P.
, Gardner-Morse
, M. G.
, Costi
, J. J.
, and Iatridis
, J. C.
, 2011
, “Refinement of Elastic, Poroelastic, and Osmotic Tissue Properties of Intervertebral Disks to Analyze Behavior in Compression
,” Ann. Biomed. Eng.
, 39
(1
), pp. 122
–131
.10.1007/s10439-010-0140-160.
Goertzen
, D. J.
, Lane
, C.
, and Oxland
, T. R.
, 2004
, “Neutral Zone and Range of Motion in the Spine are Greater With Stepwise Loading Than With a Continuous Loading Protocol. An In Vitro Porcine Investigation
,” J. Biomech.
, 37
(2
), pp. 257
–261
.10.1016/S0021-9290(03)00307-561.
Baillargeon
, E.
, and Anderst
, W. J.
, 2013
, “Sensitivity, Reliability and Accuracy of the Instant Center of Rotation Calculation in the Cervical Spine During In Vivo Dynamic Flexion-Extension
,” J. Biomech.
, 46
(4
), pp. 670
–676
.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2012.11.055Copyright © 2014 by ASME
You do not currently have access to this content.
