(Al x Ga 1−x ) 2 O 3 and Ga 2 O 3 are promising wide bandgap semiconductors for application in power electronics and radio frequency devices because of their exceptional electrical transport properties. However, the heat dissipation in these devices will be limited by the ultra-low thermal conductivity of (Al x Ga 1−x ) 2 O 3 and Ga 2 O 3 . Previous studies showed that these devices could achieve high power density with double-sided or top-side cooling strategies. Therefore, the thermal transport across metal-(Al x Ga 1−x ) 2 O 3 and metal-Ga 2 O 3 contacts is important, since heat will be conducted through the metal-semiconductor interface as a preferred pathway to extract heat from the devices. In this work, we study the thermal transport across Al-(Al x Ga 1−x ) 2 O 3 and Al-Ga 2 O 3 interfaces with an (010) orientation for the semiconductors. We have applied thermal and material characterization (time-domain thermoreflectance (TDTR) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) together with theoretical approaches to understand the interfacial thermal transport at Al-(Al x Ga 1−x ) 2 O 3 and AlGa 2 O 3 contacts. It is found that for different growth methods, the highest TBC at Al-Ga 2 O 3 interface occurs with molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) deposition of the Al on Ga 2 O 3 . However, the experimentally measured TBC at E-beam evaporated Al interfaces is much lower than that at the MBE grown Al interfaces. The measured values are also much lower than theoretical predictions, and it is related to the interfacial chemical reactions that occur at the interfaces. The effect of Al composition on interfacial thermal transport at Al/(Al x Ga 1−x ) 2 O 3 interface is also studied. It is found that the TBC at the E-beam evaporated Al/(Al x Ga 1−x ) 2 O 3 interface is very close to that of the E-beam evaporated Al-Ga 2 O 3 interface at different temperatures in the ternary alloy studied.

Jet impingement can be particularly effective for removing high heat fluxes from local hotspots. Two-phase jet impingement cooling combines the advantage of both the nucleate boiling heat transfer with the single-phase sensible cooling. This study investigates two-phase submerged jet impingement cooling of local hotspots generated by a diode laser in a 100 nm thick Hafnium (Hf) thin-film on glass. The jet/nozzle diameter is ∼1.2 mm and the normal distance between the nozzle outlet and the heated surface is ∼3.2 mm. Novec 7100 is used as the coolant and the Reynolds numbers at the jet nozzle outlet range from 250 to 5000. The hotspot area is ∼ 0.06 mm 2 and the applied hotspot-to-jet heat flux ranges from 20 W/cm 2 to 220 W/cm 2 . This heat flux range facilitates studies of both the single-phase and two-phase heat transport mechanisms for heat fluxes up to critical heat flux (CHF). The temporal evolution of the temperature distribution of the laser heated surface is measured using infrared (IR) thermometry. This study also investigates the nucleate boiling regime as a function of the distance between the hotspot center and the jet stagnation point. For example, when the hotspot center and the jet are co-aligned (x/D = 0), the CHF is found to be ∼ 177 W/cm 2 at Re ∼ 5000 with a corresponding heat transfer coefficient of ∼58 kW/m 2 .K. While the CHF is ∼ 130 W/cm 2 at Re ∼ 5000 with a jet-to-hotspot offset of x/D ≈ 4.2.

As processors continually seek greater computational output, the traditional single die processor configuration is giving way to emerging multi-die processor assemblies. As a result, dies of varying powers are spatially distributed in processor packages, causing local areas of high heat density and non-uniform temperature patterns. If not properly addressed, local hot spots may limit the total device operating power, increase leakage current to lower processor efficiency, and accelerate thermal induced semiconductor deterioration to reduce device lifetime. In this article, a modular microconvective heat sink (M2HS) is developed as a high effectiveness, high flexibility cooling solution for multi-die assemblies. Microconvective cooling, featuring optimized single-phase impingement cooling and effluent fluid flow control, provides high power density heat removal from localized heat flux zones on semiconductor dies. An AMD Threadripper 3960X is chosen as a multi-die test vehicle for the M2HS to test thermal performance in a liquid cooled experimental flow loop. Experimental results in overclocked thermal stress tests are presented, achieving power draws of up to 75% higher than the nominal processor TDP. Further, compared to a recommended product pairing of the CPU serving as a baseline heat sink, the M2HS showed a 51% improvement in CPU power draw performance. When operating at nominal, non-overclocked conditions, reduced temperature operation of the CPU using M2HS solutions resulted in a CPU efficiency increase of up to 10% compared to the baseline heat sink, providing opportunities for reduced PUE in large scale data centers. The study concludes that the M2HS shows promise as a high effectiveness, implementation-friendly cooling solution for emerging multi-die processor assemblies.

The Electrification of commercial vehicles is happening at a rapid pace. Most of the major automotive corporations are pursuing this opportunity to include electric vehicles in their portfolios. The commercial trucking industry has also been exploring the use of electric vehicles for goods transport including perishables. The transition to electrically driven vehicles has led to the need for electrically driven HVAC systems. To support this evolving commercial market, we developed an electrically driven variable speed compressor platform comprising of compressor and variable frequency drive (VFD). The product platform addresses two categories of vehicles: 1) Hybrid vehicle – the vehicle in this category uses conventional IC engine and has traditional batteries that output 48VDC. 2) Electric vehicle – the vehicle in this category is electrically driven using battery bank or traction drive that gives 650VDC as output. Hence, 650V DC is input to VFD. Both these applications were addressed with two drive designs. In this paper, we discuss the thermal design aspects of both 48V and 650V variable frequency drives. In this publication, the product development process is described from product conception, to final product. The mechanical / environmental design considerations while designing these drives were, (1) The drive was expected to be mounted under the vehicle bed and hence should be strong enough to withstand shock and vibration, (2) the drive was decided to be air cooled (4) the drive was designed to be IP67 so that it can withstand harsh road conditions, (5) the desired operating temperature range was between −40°C to 85°C for 48V and −40°C to 65°C for 650V and (6) the estimated time of service was expected to be 10 years. We were able to achieve an operating margin of −40°C to 70°C at full load for hybrid vehicle drive (48VDC) and −40°C to 65°C for electric vehicle drive (650VDC) using air cooling.

The trade-off between efficient cooling and low power consumption is a goal that has always been very desirable in electronics cooling, especially nowadays that power densities of processing units are increasing. Conventional cooling solutions do not have the necessary cooling capacities for these power densities or require significant power consumption. In this study, a novel air-cooled thermosyphon cooling system for desktop computers is presented and experimentally tested. The thermosyphon comprises a vertical micro-channel cold plate as the evaporator and a horizontal air-cooled multiport coil as the condenser. The thermosyphon has a total height of 12 cm and operates with a fan speed of 1700 RPM. The working fluid selected for the thermosyphon loop is R1234ze(E), chosen for its advantageous thermophysical properties and nearly zero-GWP (Global Warming Potential). The test results presented in this paper aim to analyze thermosyphon’s thermal and hydraulic performance by studying the trends of thermal resistance and mass flow rate as a function of different operating conditions. The maximum heat rejection under safe conditions is 250 W, corresponding to a heat flux of about 18 W/cm 2 .

Due to the high-power efficiency of lithium-ion batteries, there is an increased interest in integrating batteries into vehicles to create a more sustainable transportation method. However, batteries require thermal management systems to maintain heat generation within ranges lower than 40 kJ and operation temperatures between 25°C and 40°C. When exposed to extremely high or low temperatures, the battery efficiency decreases, and adverse consequences may occur. To combat this, research is conducted to explore various options to create thermofluidic systems that utilize fluids to regulate the battery pack’s temperatures. Developments in cooling systems have commonly used air as the cooling fluid, but research in recent years is innovating towards liquids to encourage a higher heat dissipation rate. This paper introduces battery thermal management system applications, current technologies and challenges, and innovations for improving existing models. The current technologies discussed involve manufactured systems based on air- and liquid-cooling for cylindrical and prismatic battery cells. We provide information on new engineered fluids for improvements in fluid properties. In addition to this, new directions related to manufacturing techniques or materials are highlighted to showcase potential changes to current systems to integrate complicated cooling channels in a three-dimensional design. This paper thereby aims to summarize the holistic view showing the direction of the field and possible techniques for battery thermal management.

A 10 kW scale model of a decoupled immersion cooling rig is constructed in order to serve as a testbed for immersion cooling, using 3M FC3284 dielectric cooling fluid. A species separator is constructed and demonstrates an ability to remove air from the flowfield before the condensable gases enter the condenser vessel, verified with Schlieren photography. The condenser underperformed significantly compared to initial sizing calculations using the NTU method, and film thickness of FC3284 liquid on the surface of the condenser was determined to be the cause due to low thermal conductivity of the liquid. The average film thickness on the surface of the condenser is calculated. In addition to the performance detriment of the film, air is also shown to reduce the condenser’s performance. The height of a transient stratification line is measured and compared against condenser power. Condenser efficacy losses are large and variable based on the concentration of air in the condenser vessel. A low vs high-mounted boiler is investigated. The mounting of the boiler has an effect on how much vapor is lost during a maintenance event. Finally, a comparison of the test rig’s overall cooling efficiency is made with various air-cooled datacenters by tracking energy consumption to cool a given IT load. This also translates to a reduction in carbon emissions.

This study describes the deterioration of a small axial fan’s supply flow rate in high-density packaging electronic equipment. A cooling fan flow rate can be predicted by its P-Q curve, which shows a relationship between a pressure rise at a fan (Δ P ) and a supply flow rate ( Q ). However, in high-density packaging electronic equipment, the fan performance is affected by the mounting components around the fans, and the accurate prediction of the supply flow rate becomes difficult. This paper tried to do flow visualization around a small axial cooling fan’s impellers when the obstruction was mounted in front of the fan through CFD analysis. A relationship between the supply flow rate by the fan and the flow pattern around the impellers was investigated while changing the distance between the test fan and the obstruction. Through this study, the following results can be obtained. The fan’s flow is stable in the rotating stall region and the higher flow rate operating points regardless of whether or without the obstruction. At the lower flow rate conditions, the formation of a complex unsteady flow is reproduced. As the flow rate decreases, the flow’s separation point becomes closer to the leading edge of the impeller. In the case of obstruction, the change of the flow pattern causes a larger attack angle. As a result, fan performance is degraded.

This study describes a thermal design method of forced convection cooling in high-density packaging electronic equipment for upstream design processes by flow and thermal resistance network analysis. Forced convection cooling by combining fans and heat sinks is the most standard strategy for dissipating heat from electronic equipment. In recent years, the thermal design of electronic equipment becomes more critical, and fast thermal design is required due to the rapid development of final products. We have been developing the flow and thermal resistance network analysis as the quick thermal design method for electronic equipment. However, an accurate prediction of forced convection cooling performance by finned heat sinks mounted in high-density packaging electronic equipment is generally tricky. Some bypasses, which are clearances between the heat sinks and enclosure walls or other components, exist around the heat sinks. Therefore, a flow rate distribution between the heat sink fins and the bypasses should be predicted. Many researchers have investigated hydrodynamic characteristics and heat transfer characteristics of finned heat sinks. However, many previous studies have been conducted on the finned heat sink performance when there are no bypasses. In order to achieve an optimum design of the finned heat sinks in the upstream configuration regardless of the heat sink dimensions, a systematic database of hydrodynamic characteristics and heat transfer characteristics of the finned heat sinks with bypasses should be investigated. This paper discusses the development of function models of pressure drop, flow rate distribution, and heat transfer of the finned heat sinks with the bypasses for the resistance network analysis through experiments and CFD analysis. Several types of finned heat sinks with 40 mm in width and 80 mm in length were prepared, and these were mounted in a rectangular enclosure with 45 mm in width and height. First, the pressure drop characteristic around the heat sink was investigated. In addition, the flow rate distribution between the heat sink and the bypass was evaluated separately. A flow branching coefficient was developed to predict the flow rate distribution around the heat sink combined with the pressure drop coefficient. Using the developed flow branching coefficient, the flow and thermal resistance network model around the finned heat sink was developed. The results from the proposed resistance network model showed good agreement with those from the experiment.

Power densification and rising module heat losses cannot be managed by traditional “external-to-case” cooling solutions. This is especially pronounced in high voltage systems, where intervening layers of insulating material between the power devices and cooling solution need to be sufficiently thick to provide adequate voltage isolation. As operating voltages increase, the required thicknesses for these insulating layers become so large that they limit the ability to extract the heat. A direct cooling approach that addresses voltage separation issues represents a unique opportunity to deliver coolant to the hottest regions, while opening up the opportunity for increased scaling of power electronics modules. However technical concerns about long-term performance of coolants and their voltage isolation characteristics coupled with integration challenges impede adoption. Here, the reliability and performance of voltage blocking strategies, namely dielectric fluids and dielectric surface coatings, are examined to advance the feasibility of a direct cooling approach for improved thermal management of high-voltage, high-power module. The breakdown voltage of the dielectric fluid is characterized through relevant temperatures, flow, and electric fields with the ultimate goal of developing design rules for direct integrated cooling schemes. The development and electrical characterization of conformal dielectric surface coatings to provide further protection of the electronics is also undertaken. Results showed the ability for layers of Parylene C to maintain their insulating capacity when subject to E-fields as high as 33.5V/μm.

Processor energy density is exceeding the capabilities of conventional air-cooling technology, but two-phase cooling has the potential to manage these resulting heat fluxes at reliable temperatures and higher electrical efficiency. When two-phase cooling is used in tandem with overclocking, data center footprints are reduced as individual chip processing power can be set at limits well beyond the manufacturer’s Thermal Design Power (TDP) or nominal operating condition. This study examines how Liquid Nitrogen (LN2) can be used with Additive Manufacturing (AM) and overclocking to increase the computational performance of a commercially available GPU. The power consumption and frequency relationship were established for both the cryogenically cooled solution and a comparative air-cooled solution. The cryogenic solution saw up to a 17.4% increase in compute efficiency and an 18.1% improvement in compute speed with comparable power efficiency at an equivalent performance level to the air-cooled solution. This study considers the computational performance and efficiency gains that can be acquired through cryogenic cooling on an individual graphics card, which can be replicated on a larger scale in data center applications.

Data centers housing high performance computing equipment have large and growing rack densities, which pushes the limits of traditional air cooling technologies because of limited heat transfer coefficients. Therefore, on-chip cooling using so-called cold plates is emerging as a necessary cooling option for high-density electronics. The use of mini-channels or pins fins to enhance internal heat transfer area inside cold plates requires extensive micro-machining that is relatively time consuming and expensive for mass production. As an alternative approach, inserting and bonding pre-manufactured metal foams into hollow bodies are explored as a potentially inexpensive means to enhance the interior heat transfer area of cold plates. One key aspect of the performance of metal foams in cold plates is the thermal contact resistance in the bonding between the foam and the substrate. This project predicts the contact resistance using measurements of different foam types (pure Cu and Cu with oxide), porosities (63%, 80%, 93%, and 95%) and thicknesses (4 mm, 8 mm, and 10 mm). These measurements are carried out with and without the use of thermal interface material (TIM) pads. A theory is proposed and implemented to estimate the contact and foam thermal resistances, but further work is needed to gain confidence in the results. Observations suggest that different thermal behavior is seen for the Cu foams compared to the Cu with oxide foams, and that the use of TIM pads can achieve 10x to 40x reduction in overall thermal resistance for highly porous foams bonded on Cu substrates.

The need for high power density electrical converters/inverters dominates the power electronics realm, and wide bandgap semiconducting materials, such as gallium nitride (GaN), provide the enhanced material properties necessary to drive at higher switching speeds than traditional silicon. However, lateral GaN devices introduce packaging difficulties, especially when attempting a double-sided cooled solution. Herein, we describe optimization efforts for a 650V/30A, GaN half-bridge power module with an integrated gate driver and double-sided cooling capability. Two direct bonded copper (DBC) substrates provided the primary means of heat removal from the module. In addition to the novel topology, the team performed electrical/thermal co-design to increase the multi-functionality of module. Since a central PCB comprised the main power loop, the size and geometry of the vias and copper traces was analyzed to determine optimal functionality in terms of parasitic inductance and thermal spreading. Thermally, thicker copper layers and additional vias introduced into the PCB also helped reduce hot spots within the module. Upon fabrication of the module, it underwent electrical characterization to determine switching performance, as well as thermal characterization to experimentally measure the total module’s thermal resistance. The team successfully operated the module at 400 V, 30 A with a power loop parasitic inductance of 0.89 nH; experimental thermal measurements also indicated the module thermal resistance to be 0.43 C/W. The overall utility of the design improved commensurately by introducing simple, yet effective electrical/thermal co-design strategies, which can be applied to future power modules.

In this study, TIM degradation is driven through HALT using temperature cycling and random vibration for two commercially available materials providing thermal conductivities of 6.5 and 8.0 W/m-K. HALT specimen were prepared by applying TIM through a 4-mil stencil over AlSiC baseplates in the shape of those used in Wolfspeed CAS325M12HM2 power electronics modules. Baseplates were mounted onto aluminum carrier blocks with embedded thermocouples to characterize the thermal resistance across the baseplate and TIM layer. Thermal dissipation into the top of the baseplates was provided by a custom heating block, which mimics the size and placement of the die junctions in CAS325 modules, applying power loads of 200, 300, and 400W. After initial characterization, samples were transferred to the HALT chamber with one set of samples exposed to temperature cycling only (TCO) and the other temperature cycling and vibration (TCV). Both sample sets were cycled between temperature extremes of −40 and 180 °C with random vibrations applied at a peak acceleration of 3.21 G rms . After hundreds of cycles, samples were reevaluated to assess changes in thermal resistance to provide an accelerated measure of TIM degradation. This will allow for reliability calculations of useful lifetime, provide a basis for developing accelerated testing method to related temperature cycling to faster methods of degradation, and additionally provide a means by which to develop a maintenance schedule for servicing the power modules which will enhance cooling and lifetime operation.

An in-rack cooling system connected to an external vapor recompression loop can be an economical solution to harness waste heat recovery in data centers. Validated subsystem-level models of the thermosyphon cooling and recompression loops (evaporator, heat exchangers, compressor, etc.) are needed to predict overall system performance and to perform design optimization based on the operating conditions. This paper specifically focuses on the model of the evaporator, which is a finned-tube heat exchanger incorporated in a thermosyphon cooling loop. The fin-pack is divided into individual segments to analyze the refrigerant and air side heat transfer characteristics. Refrigerant flow in the tubes is modeled as 1-D flow scheme with transport equations solved on a staggered grid. The air side is modeled using differential equations to represent the air temperature and humidity ratio and to predict if moisture removal will occur, in which case the airside heat transfer coefficient is suitably reduced. The louver fins are modeled as individual hexagons and are treated in conjunction with the tube walls. A segment-by-segment approach is utilized for each tube and the heat exchanger geometry is subsequently evaluated from one end to the other, with air property changes considered for each subsequent row of tubes. Model predictions of stream outlet temperature and pressure, refrigerant outlet vapor quality and heat exchanger duty show good agreement when compared against a commercial software.

The recent increase in complexity of computations and the expansion of edge computing have led to the emergence of high power density data centers with an urgent demand for more advanced thermal management systems. Two-phase passive cooling systems such as thermosyphons and heat pipes have been widely used in industry to maintain the temperature of the servers below the threshold of failure and carry away a large quantity of heat from a small area. Such systems are economically viable and sustainable since they have no moving parts and consume lower power. However, an upgrade to these cooling systems is imminent due to the ever-increasing power densities of the data centers and more challenging thermal management issues faced by the industry. Nanofluids have emerged recently as a new class of cooling liquids claiming to enhance the heat transfer performance in single and two-phase cooling systems. As per several studies presented in this paper, the thermal performance of thermosyphons is shown to be enhanced by employing nanofluids. In this paper, a comprehensive review is presented on the effect of nanofluids in improving the Critical Heat Flux (CHF) and Heat Transfer Coefficient (HTC) in two-phase cooling systems. The boiling phenomenon and working principles of thermosyphons will be discussed to understand the underlying mechanisms affecting heat transfer in the evaporator region, where the heat is absorbed from the source. The impact of nanoparticle features, concentration, and deposition pattern on HTC enhancement will also be studied. Additionally, estimates of the heat dissipation improvement by using nanofluids along with the bottlenecks and challenges faced in applying such fluids practically are reviewed as well. In conclusion, recommendations are made for future research needed to overcome the risks and commercialize the nanofluids in two-phase cooling systems for providing significant improvement in heat transfer performance as compared to conventional working fluids.

This paper is focused on the modeling of a brazed plate heat exchanger (BPHE) for a novel in-rack cooling loop coupled with heat recovery capability for enhanced thermal management of datacenters. In the proposed technology, the BPHE is acting as a condenser, and the model presented in this study can be applied in either the cooling loop or vapor recompression loop. Thus, the primary fluid enters as either superheated (in the vapor recompression loop) or saturated vapor (in the cooling loop), while the secondary fluid enters as a sub-cooled liquid. The model augments an existing technique from the open literature and is applied to condensation of a low-pressure refrigerant R245fa. The model assumes a two-fluid heat exchanger with R245fa and water as the primary and secondary fluids, respectively, flowing in counterflow configuration; however, the model can also handle parallel flow configuration. The 2-D model divides the heat exchanger geometry into a discrete number of slices to analyze heat transfer and pressure drops (including static, momentum and frictional losses) of both fluids, which are used to predict the exit temperature and pressure of both fluids. The model predicts the exchanger duty based on the local energy balance. The predicted values of fluid output properties (secondary fluid temperature and pressure, and primary fluid vapor quality and pressure) along with heat exchanger duty show good agreement when compared against a commercial software.

This paper introduces a novel thermal management solution coupling in-rack cooling and heat recovery system. System-level modeling capabilities are the key to design and analyze thermal performance for different applications. In this study, a semi-empirical model for a hermetically sealed scroll compressor is developed and applied to different scroll geometries. The model parameters are tuned and validated such that the model is applicable to a variety of working fluids. The identified parameters are split into two groups: one group is dependent on the compressor geometry and independent of working fluid, whereas the other group is fluid dependent. By modifying the fluid-dependent parameters using the specific heat ratios of two refrigerants, the model shows promise in predicting the refrigerant mass flow rate, discharge temperature and compressor shaft power of a third refrigerant. Here, the approach has been applied using data for two refrigerants (R22 and R134a) to achieve predictions for a third refrigerant’s (R407c) mass flow rate, discharge temperature, and compressor shaft power, with normalized root mean square errors of 0.01, 0.04 and 0.020, respectively. The normalization is performed based on the minimum and maximum values of the measured variable data. The technique thus presented in this study can be used to accurately predict the primary variables of interest for a scroll compressor running on a given refrigerant for which data may be limited, enabling component-level design or analysis for different operating conditions and system requirements.

With the accelerated application of cloud computing and artificial intelligence, the computing power and power consumption of chips are greatly enhanced, which brings severe challenges to heat dissipation. Based on this, Baidu has adopted advanced phase change cooling technology and successfully developed an innovative 3dvc air cooling scheme for AI server system. This paper introduces the design, test and verification of the innovative scheme in detail. The results show that the scheme can reduce the GPU temperature by more than 5 °C compared with the traditional heat pipe cooling scheme, save 30%+ of the fan power consumption, and achieve good cooling and energy saving effect.

The advent of wide bandgap (WBG) semiconductors, such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN), has enabled power electronics with increasing current densities and switching frequencies. A byproduct of these improved electrical characteristics is an increase in thermal power density. Indeed, the full capability of WBG semiconductors may be underutilized if the thermal management solution cannot keep pace with the device heat generation density. Further, as many power electronics devices are integrated into a power module form factor containing a metal baseplate to allow heat spreading from high heat fluxes generated at semiconductor dies, system integrators are often sensitive to cost and weight considerations in building up systems with traditional power module designs. In this paper, a polymer baseplate with integrated microconvective cooling (PBIMC) is designed and built as a low-weight, cost-effective alternative for metal baseplates on power module devices. Microconvective cooling, featuring optimized single-phase impingement cooling and effluent fluid flow control, provides high power density heat removal from localized heat flux areas in power module packages to obviate the need for a metal heat spreader. Thermal performance of the PBIMC is tested on a thermal test vehicle representative of an IGBT power module to power densities up to 200W/cm 2 and compared to an off the shelf minichannel cold plate. The PBIMC achieved equivalent per IGBT case-to-fluid areal thermal resistances of 0.15 K-cm 2 /W, a 69% decrease compared to the baseline cold plate. Additionally, thermal crosstalk was shown to be reduced by up to 89% when moving from the cold plate to the PBIMC, demonstrating potential advantages in utilizing thermal management techniques that do not feature heat spreading. The prototype-level polymer baseplates showed a > 80% decrease in weight compared to a traditional power module metal baseplate. The study concludes that the PBIMC shows promise as a solution for high current density power electronics in weight sensitive applications, while providing opportunities for cost savings.